Tracing Two Centuries of Maths Education in Australia
Girls attending Domestic Science at Queensland State High School - taken in 1955
It's widely acknowledged that the state of mathematics education in Australia is currently facing considerable scrutiny. The ongoing debates and widespread concerns about the quality of maths instruction recently prompted me to more closely examine the historical landscape of maths education in Australia. This, along with Madeleine L'Engle's words, “To understand the present fully, you must understand the past,” sent me on an exploration into the history of maths education reforms in Australia to help me better understand our modern day issues. My guide on this journey was the insightful article by Ellerton & Clements, "Reshaping School Mathematics in Australia 1788-1988."
What resulted from this exploration was the timeline presented to you below – one that I believe vividly illustrates the evolution of mathematics education reform in Australia. It shows a shift from a rigid system influenced by English traditions to one embracing diverse ideas, including local innovations. This evolution mirrors the country's cultural transformation towards recognising its distinct identity, challenges, and requirements. The timeline reveals a journey marked by progress, setbacks, innovation, inertia, and ongoing debates on the way forward [8].
Timeline of Major Reforms and Movements in Australian Mathematics Education [2]
As you explore this timeline, I hope you will gain as many valuable insights as I did while researching and constructing it — insights not just about the history of mathematics education in Australia, but also of the continuing challenges faced by our modern day maths education system. I have added some of my own commentary along the way, but most of my opinions I have reserved for the ‘My two cents…’ section. For now, just sit back and enjoy the wild ride that has been Australia’s Maths Education Reforms over two plus centuries.
1788 - And So It Begins
Colonisation and white settlement begins in Australia and the first penal colonies were established in New South Wales. Not long after their establishment, the administrators of these settlements began recognising the need to set up schools to educate the children of the colonies.
1794 - Establishment of the First Schools
Schools were established in Sydney, Parramatta, and Norfolk Island, focusing on reading, religious instruction, and offering writing and arithmetic for an extra fee.
1814 - The First School for Aboriginal Communities
This attempt by Governor Macquarie to educate Aboriginal communities failed, highlighting early recognition of educational needs but a lack of cultural sensitivity and compromise by educators. I’m not sure how much this has changed in terms of culturally responsive education, but I will leave it to the experts to make judgments on this.
1851-1853 - Entrance Exams for Universities
Boys wishing to enter the Universities of Sydney and Melbourne had to pass entrance examinations, indicating an elitist and gender-biassed approach to education.
1855 - Challenge to Traditions
Melbourne professors proposed liberalising university entrance regulations, questioning the existing educational status quo. Not surprisingly, this proposal was harshly criticised and rejected by both traditionalists and Universities and steps were taken to ensure that whatever Australia did, continued to strictly align with that of England.
1863 - Girls Could Sit Exams
This year marked a significant step towards gender inclusivity, with girls being allowed to sit for Cambridge local examinations — but before you get too excited, it was only the ‘dominant Anglo-Saxon culture’ that administrators thought would get any benefit from having access to any branch of mathematics other than basic arithmetic, so I guess if you weren’t a female within this demographic, you needed to stick to your day job…along with those from the working-class, Aboriginal children and children not among the white elite.
1864 - Payment by Results System Introduced
This system, also modelled after the British, dictated the content and method of arithmetic classes, and with a strict emphasising on rote learning and examination performance. See ‘My two cents…’ for more on this.
1870 - Girls Could Sit Matriculation Uni Entrance Exams
Following British precedent, the University of Melbourne allowed females to present for the University's matriculation examination, paving the way for increased female participation in higher education. Again though, see above for the fine print on this reform.
1870-1875 - Debate Over Euclidean Geometry
Initiatives to replace Euclidean geometry with more active approaches faced resistance, reflecting tensions between traditional and progressive educational philosophies. The debates around geometry would continue over several decades. I’m not yet sure of the reasons for this, but it’s worth looking into. Maybe there’s an idea for another blog.
1871 - The Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching Established
This organisation sought to modernise geometry teaching, signalling a push towards educational reform. Again with the geometry!
1888 - Written Matriculation Exams Were Introduced
The adoption of written examinations for university matriculation underscored the growing standardisation and formalisation of assessment methods. part of this standardisation involved:
The aforementioned rules about females, working-class children, Aboriginal children and those not part of the dominant culture.
The role of primary school mathematics was more to provide mental discipline and training in logical thought rather than on developing mathematical aptitude, a skill not deemed useful for the working class.
The emphases on maths education when taught, continued to be on rote learning and mindless, repetitive application of routine processes.
1903-1905 - Reform in Geometry Education: The Saga Continues
Australian universities doubled down and ensured that geometry entrance courses were aligned with those in England, illustrating the continuing influence of British educational standards on Australian practices.
1905 - Commonalities in Mathematics Curriculum Between the States
State-wide curricular reforms led to greater uniformity in mathematics education across Australia.
1950s - The Cuisenaire Movement
The radical introduction of the Cuisenaire rods in mathematics teaching were aimed at improving understanding through physical manipulatives. After a while however, it became clear that the students were learning lots about coloured rods, but very little about mathematics. I have my own theory on this that involves a lack of teacher professional development, and here we are 75 years on, how much has really changed?
1960s - Introduction of the 'New Maths'
This period saw the adoption of modern mathematics concepts, though the initiative faced significant challenges in implementation and acceptance. Most teachers were unable to accept the grandiose ideas that placed more emphasis on the precision of language and symbolism and the integration of mathematical concepts. As a result, many continued to teach maths old-school.
Now, If there be only one thing that you take-away from this time stamp, let it be this: That the ‘new maths’ so many continue to complain about to this day, is not that new!! It was introduced as a progressive alternative to the “rote learning and mindless, repetitive application of routine processes” that our 1888 ancestors were so devoted to — the end!
1961-1965 - The Influence of Z.P. Dienes on Maths Education
Dienes' work in Adelaide emphasised conceptual understanding through concrete materials, significantly impacting primary level mathematics teaching [3]. His ideas didn’t bear much fruit at the time but he had enough influence that even after he left Australia, the Study Group for Mathematics Learning (SGML) in Melbourne conducted regular 'Dienesian' workshops that were attended by hundreds of teachers. He sounds like my kind of guy.
1962 - The First National Maths Conference Was Held
This event facilitated the exchange of ideas and collaborative efforts among Australian mathematics educators. The first was formed with the intention of discussing the pesky ‘new maths’ but these national conferences soon became routinely established as important avenues for increased national communication.
1970s - The Reality in Mathematics Education (RIME) Began in Victoria
The establishment of the RIME initiative IMO, indicated the first real pivot away from traditional maths practices and towards more innovative maths teaching. The project involved the production of a large amount of curriculum materials, many of which emerged from good practice observed in mathematics classrooms [6]. The fact that RIME tasks are still being accessed today is a testament to their merit. Check out the ARC website for more information and resources on this.
1970s - Emergence of Open-Plan Learning Spaces
As the country attempted to move away from ‘didactic’ teaching approaches, and more towards ‘student-centred’ ones, there came a heavy push for open plan learning spaces, with Victoria leading the charge. Unfortunately, this fad did not last long as the detrimental effects of the noise levels, along with the visual and physical distractions made these environments deleterious to learning [9]. By the 1980’s the whole idea along with countless dollars were thrown out with both the baby and the bathwater.
This movement is an exceptionally profound example of history being doomed to repeat itself. One has to wonder how something that was clearly an unmitigated failure less than four decades earlier can come back with such fervour, only to be re-re-revised and determined to be yet again a failure, this time setting fire to countless millions in precious funds and to the unfortunate educational demise of thousands of children.
Mid-1970s - Mastery Learning Notions
The disillusionment with previous movements led to an emphasis on mastery learning, proposing that given enough time, every child can learn mathematical concepts. A radical idea indeed!
1978 - Maths Teachers’ ‘Maths Skills’ Are Questioned
Concerns about the mathematical competency of teachers highlighted the need for improved professional education and training. Sadly, the particular issue with teacher competence didn't fade away with the shag carpets and Farrah Fawcett hairstyles, but has continued to be a pressing concern and a heated topic of conversation in many areas of society today.
1980 - A Problem-solving Approach to Maths Education Was Launched
This approach emphasised the importance of problem-solving in mathematics, aligning with international trends towards practical and applied learning. The interesting thing about this particular movement is that the intensity at which it was being marketed and pushed at the time, draws striking parallels to those of some of our modern day educational ‘game changers’ — Science of Reading, Explicit Direct Instruction, Inquiry-based learning, Open-plan Classrooms (see 1970s and 2010s for how that turned out)…I could go on!
1980s - The Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test (ASAT) Introduced in Queensland
This standardised test for university entrance underscored the growing emphasis on measurable academic achievement. Many states adopted a similar system soon after which has lead us lead to the current VCE/HSC ranking systems we use (IMO, not very successfully) today.
1983 - The ‘Non-Sexist Unit of the New South Wales Department of Education Published a Literature Search on Sexism and Mathematics Education
This initiative addressed gender biases in mathematics education, advocating for more inclusive teaching practices. I Googled whether this CSI-esc department still exists because I just had to know! Sadly and thankfully, it does not.
1984 - The Basic Learning in Primary Schools (BLIPS) Project Was Established
BLIPS aimed to improve early literacy and numeracy skills, indicating a broadening focus on foundational mathematics education. I tried to do some more digging on this project but all I could find was that it was a program designed to create networks of practicing teachers across Australia. This does highlight the continuing desire at the time, to build stronger collaboration among teaching professionals.
1985 - The Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching Program (MCTP) Established
MCTP was a national professional learning program aimed at 'capturing and sharing the wisdom of practice of classroom teachers'[1]. It’s focus was on improving mathematics teaching and learning in Australian schools, reflecting a systemic approach to educational reform.
1985 - The Family Maths Project Was Established (FAMPA)
This project aimed to involve families in mathematics education, fostering a supportive learning environment beyond the classroom. The establishment of the FAMPA project during this time indicated an increased awareness of the need to facilitate better community participation in all aspects of schooling.
1986 - The Problem-solving Movement Was Being Questioned
Criticism of the problem-solving movement highlighted the challenges of translating educational theories into effective classroom practices. I’m going to direct you to the previous point I made (see the 1980 time stamp) when the problem-solving movement was first implemented and note that it took approximately six years to realise that it had not accomplished it’s goal for effective, long-term and meaningful change. Again, I will to circle back to the mayhem that was open-plan classrooms and countless other instances of failed and repeated reforms and ask some important questions — who is making decisions on these reforms?, using what model?, and with what authority?
1987 - The Push for Calculators in Maths Classrooms
Discussions about the use of calculators began. The eventual recommendation for widespread calculator use in schools reflected changing attitudes towards technology in education. Nearly 40 years later, we’re having the same discussions, except now its about AI. Technology has made rapid advancements in less than 40 years, more than we could have imagined in 1987. The question is has maths education kept up? Maybe we should ask the traditionalists.
1988 - Victorian Ministry of Education's Mathematics Framework Package
This framework aimed to provide a forward-looking, inclusive approach to mathematics education, signalling a significant shift towards addressing the diverse needs of students. This framework would pave the way for future standardised mathematics curriculums at both a state and eventually a national level.
1988 -2024 - Rinse and Repeat the 1950’s to the 1980’s
Some of the more detailed commentary in this timeline may highlight what I mean by ‘Rinse and Repeat’, but to elaborate on this description we really need to ask ourselves this…setting aside a shiny new curriculum, new governing educational bodies, greater connectability thanks to the internet and a seemingly endless slew of modern technologies and emerging EdTechs, we have to ask ourselves, ‘How much has really changed’?
My two cents…
A blog would never be a complete without my two cents, so here it is, an IMO, moderate analysis of some of the highlights of two plus centuries of maths education starting at the beginning.
From England's Influence to Australia's Innovations: Maths’ Elitist Roots
For much of its history, Australia's approach to mathematics education heavily mirrored that of England, reflecting the enduring influence of colonial ties. This relationship meant that, until deep into the 20th century, any shifts in teaching practices or curriculum development in Australian schools were largely responses to changes first made in England. As a result, the focus of maths education in Australia was quite narrow, primarily centred around arithmetic and tailored to only select members of society. This approach not only limited access to a broader maths education but also reinforced an elitist perspective, suggesting that advanced mathematical study was reserved for only certain social groups.
Today, echoes of this historical perspective can still be detected in the undercurrents of our educational system. Despite significant progress and efforts to democratise maths education, traces of the past notion—that maths is only for the select few—linger within our educational practices and societal attitudes towards maths. This insight encourages a closer examination of our current education system, pushing us to question and dismantle any remaining barriers to equitable maths education for all Australians.
The Emergence of the Maths Wars
The late 20th century was a critical time for maths education in Australia. It brought a shift towards more inclusive teaching methods tailored to the local context. The 1950s through to the 1980s were filled with debates and new approaches to teaching maths such as Cuisenaire rods, 'new maths' and ‘child-centred’ approaches. These methods aimed to challenge old ways of teaching and make maths more engaging and student-centred, however their implementation was strongly influenced by England’s own adoption, highlighting Australia’s ongoing reluctance to sever ties with the ‘MotherLand’.
While these changes faced criticism, they spurred ongoing discussions about how best to teach maths. Today, the debates continues in examples such as ‘Explicit Direct Instruction and Inquiry-based learning’, or the ‘Science of Learning versus Conceptual’ arguments and reflects the ongoing search for the winning teaching method. By examining these historical shifts, we can see the cyclical nature of educational reform and the constant search for ‘more effective ways of teaching maths’. Understanding this history can guide us in shaping future educational practices. I recently read an article by Emina McLean [7] on the Science of Reading where she states of the Science of Learning “Experts and academics who now use this term should hold themselves to a higher standard because we cannot just make things up. We cannot just create a term to counter other terms or movements or approaches we do not like or agree with”. I think we need to very seriously reflect on those words as we contemplate our historical and future educational decisions.
Let’s talk about the 1864 Payment by Results System for a minute
You've likely heard George Santayana's famous saying, “Those who do not learn history are doomed to repeat it.” It appears Michael Gove, the British Education Secretary in 2013, may have overlooked this lesson. In September of that year, Gove suggested a ‘Performance Related Pay’ scheme, claiming it would enhance teaching quality and help schools identify the ‘right teachers’ [4]. However, a glance back at history would have revealed to Michael that a similar approach, the 1864 ‘Payment by Results’ system, was implemented and subsequently abandoned in both England and Australia. This system, known for causing significant stress among teachers and students, led to a narrow focus on the three R’s and excessive student regimentation, prompting its eventual abolition due to the negative impacts on education quality. Thankfully, Gove's proposal didn't gain traction, but it stands as another reminder of the risks associated with ignoring historical lessons in education policy, highlighting how uninformed decisions can potentially harm educational progress.
Our Journey Continues
Despite all efforts reflected in the timeline, IMO, the 1980s onwards have not seen the radical transformation of mathematics classrooms many had strived for. The quest to reshape school mathematics in Australia remains an ongoing challenge, with contemporary issues echoing those of the past. The declining proportion of students completing advanced mathematics, the shortage of qualified mathematics teachers, and the persistent underachievement in international assessments are stark reminders of the work still to be done. Given the rapid advancements in technologies since those days, this is something that should be seriously reflected upon.
One thing this historical overview does invite us to reflect upon however, is the enduring debates within mathematics education and the various gatekeepers who have influenced its direction. It underscores the need for a curriculum that not only keeps pace with global trends but also addresses Australia's unique social structure. As we look to the future, it is clear that the journey of reshaping school mathematics in Australia is far from over. It is a journey that requires us to critically examine past reforms, embrace innovation, and work collaboratively across states and territories to ensure that all Australian students have access to a mathematics education that is engaging, equitable, effective and most importantly shaped around the unique needs of each and every one of them.
References
Clarke, B., Clarke, D., & Sullivan, P. (1996). The mathematics teacher and curriculum development. In A. J. Bishop, K. Clements, C. Keitel, J. Kilpatrick, & C. Laborde (Eds.), International Handbook of Mathematics Education: Part 1 (pp. 1207-1234). Springer International Handbooks of Education.
Ellerton, N. F., & Clements, M. A. (1988). Reshaping school mathematics in Australia 1788-1988. University of Melbourne
Fossa, J. (2003). On the Ancestry of Z. P. Dienes´s Theory of Mathematics Education. Revista Brasileira de História da Matemática, 3(6), 79-81. https://doi.org/10.47976/RBHM2003v3n679-81
Hooper, C. 2018. Payment by results: Teachers’ work, remuneration, and student assessment. Dictionary of Educational History in Australia and New Zealand (DEHANZ), 25 March. Available: http://dehanz.net.au
Leder, G.C., & Forgasz, H.J. (Eds.). (2007). Stepping stones for the 21st century. Sense Publishers.
Lowe, I. & Lovitt, C. ( 1984 ). Making sum-think happen. Melbourne: Education Department of Victoria.
McLean, E. (n.d.). Has the Science of Reading become a rampant thought-terminating cliché? Retrieved April 1, 2024, from https://www.eminamclean.com/post/has-the-science-of-reading-become-a-rampant-thought-terminating-cliché
Marsh, C. & Stafford, K. (1984). Curriculum: Australian practices and issues. Sydney: McGraw-Hill.
Subban, P., & Round, P. (2022). Investigating teachers’ perceptions of open plan classroom settings: A case of an innovative convention? Issues in Educational Research, 32(2), 721.
